name	Nebraska
fullname	State of Nebraska
flag	Flag of Nebraska.svg
seal	Nebraska-StateSeal.svg
map	Nebraska in United States.svg
nickname	Cornhusker State
former	Nebraska Territory
motto	Equality Before the Law
capital	Lincoln
officiallang	English
demonym	Nebraskan
largestcity	Omaha
largestmetro	Omaha-Council Bluffs
governor	Dave Heineman (R)
lieutenant governor	Rick Sheehy (R)
legislature	Nebraska Legislature
upperhouse	''None'' (unicameral)
lowerhouse	''None'' (unicameral)
senators	Ben Nelson (D)Mike Johanns (R)
representative	Jeff Fortenberry (R)Lee Terry (R)Adrian M. Smith (R)
postalabbreviation	NE
arearank	16th
totalareaus	77,354
totalarea	200,520
landareaus	76,873
landarea	199,099
waterareaus	481
waterarea	1,247
pcwater	0.7
poprank	38th
2000pop	1,842,641 (2011 est)
densityrank	43rd
2000densityus	24.0
2000density	9.25
medianhouseholdincome	$44,623
incomerank	20th
admittanceorder	37th
admittancedate	March 1, 1867
timezone	Central: UTC-6/-5
tz1where	most of state
timezone2	Mountain: UTC-7/-6
tz2where	panhandle
latitude	40° N to 43° N
longitude	95° 19' W to 104° 03' W
widthus	210
width	340
lengthus	430
length	690
highestpoint	Panorama Point
highestelevus	5,427
highestelev	1654
meanelevus	2,600
meanelev	790
lowestpoint	Missouri River at
lowestelevus	840
lowestelev	256
isocode	US-NE
website	www.nebraska.gov }}

Nebraska () is a state on the Great Plains of the Midwestern United States. Its state capital is Lincoln and its largest city is Omaha, on the Missouri River.

The state is crossed by many historic trails, but it was the California Gold Rush that first brought large numbers here, and it became a state in 1867. Certain landmarks still compete for the notional distinction 'Where the West Begins'.

There are wide variations between winter and summer temperatures, and violent thunderstorms and tornadoes are common. The state is characterized by treeless prairie, ideal for cattle-grazing, and it is a major producer of beef, as well as pork, maize and soybeans. Nebraska is overwhelmingly rural, as the 8th least-densely populated state of the United States, with only one Metropolitan Class City.

Ethnically, the largest group are German-Americans, and the state has the biggest Czech-American population per head. During the Great Migration, many African Americans came to Omaha, and they continue to campaign for improved conditions. More recently, Native American activism has increased, with a drive for self-determination in a climate of co-operation with state officials on regional issues. It is traditionally a Republican-voting state.

Nebraska is identified with notables as varied as Fred Astaire, Malcolm X, Johnny Carson, Dick Cavett, Montgomery Clift, Henry Fonda, Buffalo Bill Cody, Warren Buffett, L. Ron Hubbard, Willa Cather, Marlon Brando and Alexander Payne. Kool-Aid was first formulated in Nebraska in 1927.

Etymology

Nebraska gets its name from the archaic Otoe words ''Ñí Brásge'', pronounced (contemporary Otoe ''Ñí Bráhge''), or the Omaha ''Ní Btháska'', pronounced , meaning "flat water", after the Platte River that flows through the state.

History

Varying cultures of indigenous peoples lived in the region along the rivers for thousands of years before European exploration. Historical Native American tribes living in Nebraska have included the Omaha, Missouria, Ponca, Pawnee, Otoe, and various branches of the Lakota (Sioux).

Long before the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806, French-Canadian explorers (including the Mallet brothers in 1739) traversed the territory of Nebraska on their way to trade in Santa Fe, then claimed by Spain.

In 1819, the United States established Fort Atkinson as the first US Army post west of the Missouri River, just east of present-day Fort Calhoun. The army abandoned the fort in 1827 as migration moved further west.

European-American settlement did not begin in any numbers until after 1848 and the California Gold Rush. On May 30, 1854, the US Congress created the Kansas and the Nebraska territories, divided by the Parallel 40° North, under the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The Nebraska Territory included parts of the current states of Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana. The territorial capital of Nebraska was Omaha.

In the 1860s, after the US government forced many of the Native American tribes to cede their lands and settle on reservations, it opened large tracts of land to agricultural development by Europeans and Americans. Under the Homestead Act, thousands of new settlers migrated into Nebraska to claim free land granted by the federal government. Because so few trees grew on the prairies, many of the first farming settlers built their homes of sod, as had the Native Americans such as the Omaha. The first wave of settlement gave the territory a sufficient population to apply for statehood. Nebraska became the 37th state on March 1, 1867, and the capital was moved from Omaha to the center at Lancaster, later renamed Lincoln after the recently assassinated President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln.

During the 1870s to the 1880s, Nebraska experienced a large growth in population. Several factors contributed to attracting new residents. The first was that the vast prairie land was perfect for cattle grazing. This helped settlers to learn the unfamiliar geography of the area. The second factor was the invention of several farming technologies. Agricultural inventions such as barbed wire, wind mills, and the steel plow, combined with good weather, enabled settlers to make use of Nebraska as prime farming land. By the 1880s, Nebraska's population had soared to more than 450,000 people.

The Arbor Day holiday was founded in Nebraska. The National Arbor Day Foundation is still headquartered in Nebraska City, with some offices in Lincoln.

In the late nineteenth century, many African Americans migrated from the South to Nebraska as part of the Great Migration, primarily to Omaha which offered working class jobs in meatpacking, the railroads and other industries. Omaha has a long history of civil rights activism. Blacks encountered discrimination from other Americans in Omaha and especially from recent European immigrants, ethnic whites who were competing for the same jobs. In 1912 African Americans founded the Omaha chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People to work for improved conditions in the city and state. Activism has continued.

Since the 1960s, Native American activism in the state has increased, both through open protest, activities to build alliances with state and local governments, and in the slower, more extensive work of building tribal institutions and infrastructure. Native Americans in federally recognized tribes have pressed for self-determination, sovereignty and recognition. They have created community schools to preserve their cultures, as well as tribal colleges and universities. Tribal politicians have also collaborated with state and county officials on regional issues.

Geography

The state is bordered by South Dakota to the north; Iowa to the east and Missouri to the southeast, across the Missouri River; Kansas to the south; Colorado to the southwest; and Wyoming to the west. The state has 93 counties; it occupies the central portion of the Frontier Strip. Nebraska is split into two time zones. The Central Time zone comprises the eastern half of the state, while the western half observes Mountain Time. Three rivers cross the state from west to east. The Platte River, formed by the confluence of the North Platte and the South Platte, runs through the central portion of the state, the Niobrara River flows through the northern part, and the Republican River runs across the southern part.

Nebraska is composed of two major land regions: the Dissected Till Plains and the Great Plains. The easternmost portion of the state was scoured by Ice Age glaciers; the Dissected Till Plains were left behind after the glaciers retreated. The Dissected Till Plains is a region of gently rolling hills; Omaha and Lincoln are in this region.

The Great Plains occupy the majority of western Nebraska. The Great Plains region consists of several smaller, diverse land regions, including the Sandhills, the Pine Ridge, the Rainwater Basin, the High Plains and the Wildcat Hills. Panorama Point, at 5,424 feet (1,653 m), is the highest point in Nebraska; despite its name and elevation, it is a relatively low rise near the Colorado and Wyoming borders.

A past Nebraska tourism slogan was "Where the West Begins"; locations given for the beginning of the "West" include the Missouri River, the intersection of 13th and O Streets in Lincoln (where it is marked by a red brick star), the 100th meridian, and Chimney Rock. Nebraska is a triply landlocked state, as it does not border the ocean, nor do any of the states it borders, nor any that they border.

Federal land management

Areas under the management of the National Park Service include:

Agate Fossil Beds National Monument near Harrison

California National Historic Trail

Chimney Rock National Historic Site near Bayard

Homestead National Monument of America in Beatrice

Lewis & Clark National Historic Trail

Missouri National Recreational River near Ponca

Mormon Pioneer National Historic Trail

Niobrara National Scenic River near Valentine

Oregon National Historic Trail

Pony Express National Historic Trail

Scotts Bluff National Monument at Gering

Areas under the management of the National Forest Service include:

Nebraska National Forest

Oglala National Grassland

Samuel R. McKelvie National Forest

Climate

Two major climatic zones are represented in Nebraska: the eastern half of the state has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification ''Dfa''), and the western half, a semi-arid climate (Koppen ''BSk''). The entire state experiences wide seasonal variations in temperature and precipitation. Average temperatures are fairly uniform across Nebraska, with hot summers and generally cold winters, while average annual precipitation decreases east to west from about 31.5 inches (800 mm) in the southeast corner of the state to about 13.8 inches (350 mm) in the Panhandle. Humidity also decreases significantly from east to west. Snowfall across the state is fairly even, with most of Nebraska receiving between 25 and 35 inches (65 to 90 cm) of snow annually. Nebraska's highest recorded temperature is at Minden on July 24, 1936 and the lowest recorded temperature is at Camp Clarke on February 12, 1899. Nebraska is in Tornado Alley; thunderstorms are common in the spring and summer months, and violent thunderstorms and tornadoes happen primarily during the spring and summer, though they can also occur in the autumn. The chinook winds from the Rocky Mountains provide a temporary moderating effect on temperatures in western Nebraska during the winter months.

Demographics

The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Nebraska was 1,842,641 on July 1, 2011, a 0.89% increase since the 2010 United States Census. The center of population of Nebraska is in Polk County, in the city of Shelby.

As of 2004, the population of Nebraska included about 84,000 foreign-born residents (4.8% of the population). The five largest ancestry groups in Nebraska are German (38.6%), Irish (12.4%), English (9.6%), Czech (5.5%), and Swedish (4.9%).

Nebraska has the largest Czech-American and non-Mormon Danish-American population (as a percentage of the total population) in the nation. German Americans are the largest ancestry group in most of the state, particularly in the eastern counties. Thurston County (made up entirely of the Omaha and Winnebago reservations) has an American Indian majority, and Butler County is one of only two counties in the nation with a Czech-American plurality.

Rural flight

Eighty-nine percent of the cities in Nebraska have fewer than 3,000 people. Nebraska shares this characteristic with five other Midwestern states: Kansas, Oklahoma, North and South Dakota, and Iowa. Hundreds of towns have a population of fewer than 1,000. Regional population declines have forced many rural schools to consolidate.

Fifty-three of Nebraska's 93 counties reported declining populations between 1990 and 2000, ranging from a 0.06% loss (Frontier County) to a 17.04% loss (Hitchcock County).

More urbanized areas of the state have experienced substantial growth. In 2000, the city of Omaha had a population of 390,007; in 2005, the city's estimated population was 414,521 (427,872 including the recently annexed city of Elkhorn), a 6.3% increase over five years. The 2010 census showed that Omaha has a population of 408,958. The city of Lincoln had a 2000 population of 225,581 and a 2010 population of 258,379, a 14.5% increase.

Religion

The religious affiliations of the people of Nebraska are:

Christian – 90%

* Catholic – 28%

* Lutheran – 16%

* Methodist – 11%

* Baptist – 9%

* Presbyterian – 4%

**Other Protestant – 21%

*Other Christian – 1%

Non-religious – 9%

Other religions – 1%

The largest single denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Catholic Church (372,791), the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (128,570), the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (117,419) and the United Methodist Church (117,277).

Taxation

Nebraska has a progressive income tax. The portion of income from $0 to $2,400 is taxed at 2.56%; from $2,400 to $17,500, at 3.57%; from $17,500 to $27,000, at 5.12%; and income over $27,000, at 6.84%. The standard deduction for a single taxpayer is $5,700; the personal exemption is $118.

Nebraska has a state sales tax of 5.5%. In addition to the state tax, some Nebraska cities assess a city sales and use tax, up to a maximum of 1.5%. One county in Nebraska, Dakota County, levies a sales tax. All real property within the state of Nebraska is taxable unless specifically exempted by statute. Since 1992, only depreciable personal property is subject to tax and all other personal property is exempt from tax. Inheritance tax is collected at the county level.

Economy

The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates of Nebraska's gross state product in 2010 was $89.8 billion. Per capita personal income in 2004 was $31,339, 25th in the nation. Nebraska has a large agriculture sector, and is an important producer of beef, pork, corn (maize), and soybeans. Other important economic sectors include freight transport (by rail and truck), manufacturing, telecommunications, information technology, and insurance.

As of January 2010, the state's unemployment rate is 4.6%.

Industry

Kool-Aid was created in 1927 by Edwin Perkins in the city of Hastings, which celebrates the event the second weekend of every August with Kool-Aid Days. Kool-Aid is the official soft drink of Nebraska. ''CliffsNotes'' were developed by Clifton Hillegass of Rising City. He adapted his pamphlets from the Canadian publications, ''Coles Notes''.

Omaha is home to Berkshire Hathaway, whose CEO Warren Buffett was ranked in March 2009 by ''Forbes'' magazine as the second richest person in the world. The city is also home to ConAgra, Mutual of Omaha, InfoUSA, TD Ameritrade, West Corporation, Valmont Industries, Woodmen of the World, Kiewit Corporation, and the Union Pacific Railroad. UNIFI Companies, Sandhills Publishing Company, and Duncan Aviation are based in Lincoln; The Buckle is based in Kearney. Sidney is the national headquarters for Cabela's, a specialty retailer of outdoor goods.

The world's largest train yard, Union Pacific's Bailey Yard, is in North Platte. The Vise-Grip was invented by William Petersen in 1924, and was manufactured in De Witt until the plant was closed and moved to China in late 2008.

Lincoln's Kawasaki Motors Manufacturing is the only Kawasaki plant in the world to produce the Jet-Ski, ATV, and Mule lines of product. The facility employs more than 1200 people.

The Spade Ranch, in the Sand Hills, is one of Nebraska's oldest and largest beef cattle operations.

Transportation

Railroads

Nebraska has a rich railroad history. The Union Pacific Railroad, headquartered in Omaha, was incorporated on July 1, 1862, in the wake of the Pacific Railway Act of 1862. Bailey Yard, in North Platte, is the largest railroad classification yard in the world. The route of the original transcontinental railroad runs through the state.

Other major railroads with operations in the state are: Amtrak; Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway; Canadian Pacific Railway; and Iowa Interstate Railroad.

Roads and highways

Interstate Highways through the State of Nebraska The U.S. Routes in Nebraska

Law and government

Nebraska's government operates under the framework of the Nebraska Constitution, adopted in 1875, and is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.

Executive branch

The head of the executive branch is the Governor Dave Heineman. Other elected officials in the executive branch are the Lieutenant Governor Rick Sheehy (elected on the same ticket as the Governor), Attorney General Jon Bruning, Secretary of State John A. Gale, State Treasurer Don Stenberg, and State Auditor Mike Foley. All elected officials in the executive branch serve four-year terms.

Legislative branch

Nebraska is the only state in the United States with a unicameral legislature. Although this house is officially known simply as the "Legislature", and more commonly called the "Unicameral", its members call themselves "senators". Nebraska's Legislature is also the only state legislature in the United States that is nonpartisan. The senators are elected with no party affiliation next to their names on the ballot, and the speaker and committee chairs are chosen at large, so that members of any party can be chosen for these positions. The Nebraska Legislature can also override a governor's veto with a three-fifths majority, in contrast to the two-thirds majority required in some other states.

The Nebraska Legislature meets in the third Nebraska State Capitol building, built between 1922 and 1932. It was designed by Bertram G. Goodhue. Built from Indiana limestone, the Capitol's base is a cross within a square. A 400-foot domed tower rises from this base. The Golden Sower, a 19-foot bronze statue representing agriculture, crowns the Capitol. The state Capitol is considered an architectural achievement and has been recognized by the American Institute of Architects.

For years, US Senator George Norris and other Nebraskans encouraged the idea of a unicameral legislature, and demanded the issue be decided in a referendum. Norris argued:

Unicameral supporters also argued that a bicameral legislature had a significant undemocratic feature in the committees that reconciled Assembly and Senate legislation. Votes in these committees were secretive, and would sometimes add provisions to bills that neither house had approved. Nebraska's unicameral legislature today has rules that bills can contain only one subject, and must be given at least five days of consideration.

In 1934, due in part to the budgetary pressure of the Great Depression, Nebraska citizens ran a state initiative to vote on a unicameral legislature, which was approved. In effect, the Assembly (the house) was abolished; as noted, today's Nebraska state legislators are commonly referred to as "Senators".

Judicial branch

The judicial system in Nebraska is unified, with the Nebraska Supreme Court having administrative authority over all Nebraska courts. Nebraska uses the Missouri Plan for the selection of judges at all levels. The lowest courts in Nebraska are the county courts, above that are twelve district courts (containing one or more counties). The Court of Appeals hears appeals from the district courts, juvenile courts, and workers' compensation courts. The Nebraska Supreme Court is the final court of appeal.

In 2008, the Nebraska Supreme Court ruled that the state's only method of execution, electrocution, was in conflict with the state's constitution. For the next year, Nebraska had no active death-penalty law. (Prior to that ruling, Nebraska was the only place in the world that used electrocution as the sole method of execution.) In May 2009, the legislature passed and the governor signed a bill that changed the method of execution in Nebraska to lethal injection, enabling capital punishment. Executions in Nebraska have been infrequent; none have been carried out in the 21st century. During the last few decades, residents have considered a moratorium on, or complete abolition of, capital punishment.

Federal government representation

Nebraska's U.S. senators are Mike Johanns (R), the junior senator, and Ben Nelson (D), the senior senator.

Nebraska has three representatives in the House of Representatives: Jeff Fortenberry (R) of the 1st district; Lee Terry (R) of the 2nd district; and Adrian M. Smith (R) of the 3rd district.

Nebraska is one of two states (with Maine) that allow for a split in the state's allocation of electoral votes in presidential elections. Under a 1991 law, two of Nebraska's five votes are awarded to the winner of the statewide popular vote, while the other three go to the highest vote-getter in each of the state's three congressional districts.

Politics

For most of its history, Nebraska has been a solidly Republican state. Republicans have carried the state in all but one presidential election since 1940: the 1964 landslide election of Lyndon B. Johnson. In the 2004 presidential election, George W. Bush won the state's five electoral votes by a margin of 33 percentage points (making Nebraska's the fourth-strongest Republican vote among states) with 65.9% of the overall vote; only Thurston County, which is majority-Native American, voted for his Democratic challenger John Kerry. In 2008, the state split its electoral votes for the first time: Republican John McCain won the popular vote in Nebraska as a whole and two of its three congressional districts; the second district, which includes the city of Omaha, went for Democrat Barack Obama.

Despite the current Republican domination of Nebraska politics, the state has a long tradition of electing centrist members of both parties to state and federal office; examples include George Norris (who served few years in the Senate as an independent), J. James Exon, and Bob Kerrey. Voters have tilted to the right in recent years with the election of conservative Mike Johanns to the US Senate and the re-election of Ben Nelson, who is currently considered the most conservative Democrat in the US Senate.

Former President Gerald Ford, a Republican and Michigan resident, was born in Nebraska. Illinois native William Jennings Bryan represented Nebraska in Congress and unsuccessfully ran for President as a Democrat from Nebraska three times.

Important cities and towns

As of the 2010 Census, there are 530 cities and villages in the state of Nebraska. There are five classifications of cities and villages in Nebraska, which is based upon population. All population figures are 2010 Census Bureau estimates.

Largest cities

Metropolitan Class City (300,000 or more)

Omaha – 408,958

Primary Class City (100,000 - 299,999)

Lincoln – 258,379

First Class City (5,000 - 99,999)

Bellevue – 50,137

Grand Island – 48,520

Kearney – 30,787

Fremont – 26,397

Hastings – 24,907

North Platte – 24,733

Norfolk – 24,210

Columbus – 22,111

Papillion – 18,894

La Vista – 15,758

Scottsbluff – 15,039

South Sioux City – 13,353

Beatrice – 12,459

Lexington – 10,230

Gering – 8,500

Alliance – 8,491

Blair – 7,990

York – 7,766

McCook - 7,698

Nebraska City - 7,289

Seward - 6,964

Crete - 6,960

Sidney - 6,757

Plattsmouth - 6,502

Schuyler - 6,211

Ralston - 5,943

Chadron - 5,851

Wayne - 5,660

Holdrege - 5,495

Second Class Cities (800 - 4,999) and Villages (100 - 800) make up the rest of the communities in Nebraska. There are 116 second class cities and 382 villages in the state.

Urban areas

{|- |- !align="left"|Metropolitan areas ! style="text-align:left;" colspan="2"|Micropolitan areas |- |valign=top|

Omaha-Council Bluffs – 728,963 (Nebraska portion); 849,517 (total for Nebraska and Iowa)

Lincoln – 298,012

Sioux City, Iowa – 26,940 (Nebraska portion); 144,360 (total for Nebraska, Iowa and South Dakota)

|valign=top|

Grand Island – 71,596

Kearney – 52,274

Norfolk – 48,000

Hastings – 39,529

Scottsbluff – 37,512

|valign=top|

North Platte – 36,890

Fremont – 35,640

Columbus – 32,515

Lexington – 26,920

Beatrice – 22,653

|}

Other areas

Grand Island, Hastings and Kearney comprise the "Tri-Cities" area, with a combined population of 163,399.

The northeast corner of Nebraska is part of the Siouxland region.

Education

Colleges and universities

University of Nebraska system University of Nebraska–Lincoln University of Nebraska at Kearney University of Nebraska at Omaha University of Nebraska Medical Center Nebraska College of Technical Agriculture Nebraska State College System Chadron State College Peru State College Wayne State College

Community Colleges Central Community College Little Priest Tribal College Metropolitan Community College Mid-Plains Community College Nebraska Indian Community College Northeast Community College Southeast Community College Western Nebraska Community College

Private colleges/universities Bellevue University Clarkson College College of Saint Mary Concordia University Creighton University Doane College Grace University Hastings College Midland University Nebraska Christian College Nebraska Methodist College Nebraska Wesleyan University Summit Christian College Union College York College

Culture

Arbor Day was founded by J. Sterling Morton; the National Arbor Day Foundation has its headquarters near his home in Nebraska City.

The swing in the Hebron, Nebraska city park at 5th and Jefferson streets is claimed to be the world's largest porch swing, long enough to fit 18 adults or 26 children.

Nebraska Huskers football influences many of Nebraska's residents. During home football games, Memorial Stadium in Lincoln, with a capacity of 85,500, becomes larger than Nebraska's third-largest city.

Job's Daughters was founded in Omaha in 1920 by Ethel T. Wead Mick. There are now bethels in Canada, Australia, Brazil, and Philippines.

Sports

Professional sports

* Lincoln Saltdogs – American Association (independent minor league baseball)

* Nebraska Danger – Indoor Football League

* Omaha Beef – Indoor Football League

* Omaha Storm Chasers – Pacific Coast League (AAA minor league baseball; affiliate of the Kansas City Royals)

* Omaha Nighthawks – United Football League

* Omaha Vipers – Major Indoor Soccer League

NCAA Division I college sports

* Creighton Bluejays

* Nebraska Cornhuskers

* University of Nebraska at Omaha (currently ice hockey only; all other sports moving to Division I in fall 2012)

NCAA Division II college sports

* University of Nebraska at Kearney Antelopes (Lopers)

* University of Nebraska at Omaha Mavericks

* Wayne State College Wildcats

* Chadron State College Eagles

Junior-level sports: United States Hockey League

* Lincoln Stars

* Omaha Lancers

* Tri-City Storm

See also

Outline of Nebraska

Index of Nebraska-related articles

List of National Register of Historic Places in Nebraska

References

Bibliography

Surveys

Chokecherry Places, Essays from the High Plains, Merrill Gilfillan, Johnson Press, Boulder, Colorado, trade paperback, ISBN 1-55566-227-7.

Olson James C. and Ronald C. Naugle, ''History of Nebraska'' 2nd ed (1997)

Andreas, Alfred T., ''History of the State of Nebraska'' (1882) (a highly detailed history)

Creigh, Dorothy Weyers. ''Nebraska: A Bicentennial History'' (1977)

Faulkner, Virginia, ed. ''Roundup: A Nebraska Reader'' (1957)

Hickey, Donald R. ''Nebraska Moments: Glimpses of Nebraska's Past'' (1992).

Miewald, Robert D., ''Nebraska Government & Politics'' (1984)

Luebke Frederick C. ''Nebraska: An Illustrated History'' (1995)

Morton, J. Sterling, ed. ''Illustrated History of Nebraska: A History of Nebraska from the Earliest Explorations of the Trans-Mississippi Region.'' 3 vols. (1905–13)

Wishart, David J. ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Great Plains'', University of Nebraska Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8032-4787-7. complete text online; 900 pages of scholarly articles

''Nebraska: A Guide to the Cornhusker State'', WPA Guide, 1939; scanned online edition

Scholarly special studies

Barnhart, John D. "Rainfall and the Populist Party in Nebraska." ''American Political Science Review'' 19 (1925): 527–40. in JSTOR

Beezley, William H. "Homesteading in Nebraska, 1862–1872", ''Nebraska History'' 53 (spring 1972): 59–75

Bentley, Arthur F. "The Condition of the Western Farmer as Illustrated by the Economic History of a Nebraska Township." ''Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science'' 11 (1893): 285–370

Cherny, Robert W. ''Populism, Progressivism, and the Transformation of Nebraska Politics, 1885–1915'' (1981)

Bogue Allen G. ''Money at Interest: The Farm Mortgage on the Middle Border'' (1955)

Brunner, Edmund de S. ''Immigrant Farmers and Their Children'' (1929)

Chudacoff, Howard P. ''Mobile Americans: Residential and Social Mobility in Omaha, 1880–1920'' (1972)

* Chudacoff, Howard P. "A New Look at Ethnic Neighborhoods: Residential Dispersion and the Concept of Visibility in a Medium-sized City." ''Journal of American History'' 60 (1973): 76–93. about Omaha; in JSTOR

Coletta, Paolo E. ''William Jennings Bryan''. 3 vols. (1964–69)

Dick, Everett. ''The Sod-House Frontier: 1854–1890'' (1937)

Farragher, John Mack. ''Women and Men on the Overland Trail'' (1979)

Fuller, Wayne E. ''The Old Country School: The Story of Rural Education in the Midwest'' (1982)

Grant, Michael Johnston. "Down and Out on the Family Farm" (2002)

Harper, Ivy. ''Walzing Matilda: Life and Times of Nebraska Senator Robert Kerrey'' (1992)

Holter, Don W. ''Flames on the Plains: A History of United Methodism in Nebraska'' (1983)

Jeffrey, Julie Roy. ''Frontier Women: The Trans-Mississippi West, 1840–1880'' (1979)

Klein, Maury. ''Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad, 1862–1893'' (1986)

Klein, Maury. ''Union Pacific: The Rebirth, 1894–1969'' (1989)

Larsen, Lawrence H. ''The Gate City: A History of Omaha'' (1982)

Lowitt, Richard. ''George W. Norris'' 3 vols. (1971)

Luebke, Frederick C. ''Immigrants and Politics: The Germans of Nebraska, 1880–1900'' (1969)

Luebke, Frederick C. "The German-American Alliance in Nebraska, 1910–1917." ''Nebraska History'' 49 (1969): 165–85

Olson, James C. ''J. Sterling Morton'' (1942)

Overton, Richard C. ''Burlington West: A Colonization History of the Burlington Railroad'' (1941)

Parsons Stanley B. "Who Were the Nebraska Populists?" ''Nebraska History'' 44 (1963): 83–99

Pierce, Neal. ''The Great Plains States'' (1973)

Pederson, James F., and Kenneth D. Wald. ''Shall the People Rule? A History of the Democratic Party in Nebraska Politics'' (1972)

Riley, Glenda. ''The Female Frontier. A Comparative View of Women on the Prairie and the Plains'' (1978)

Wenger, Robert W. "The Anti-Saloon League in Nebraska Politics, 1898–1910." ''Nebraska History'' 52 (1971): 267–92

External links

Nebraska state government

Nebraska Division of Travel and Tourism

Energy Profile for Nebraska

USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Nebraska

U.S. Census Bureau

Nebraska State Facts

Nebraska Frequently Asked Questions

Nebraska State Publications Online

Nebraska city-data

nebraskastudies.org – History of Nebraska from Nebraska Department of Education, Nebraska State Historical Society, and NET

Nebraska State Databases – Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Nebraska state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association.

Category:States of the United States Category:States and territories established in 1867

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Name	Miss America
Size	250px
Formation	1921
Type	Scholarship Pageant
Headquarters	Linwood, New Jersey
Location	United States
Leader title	CEO
Leader name	Art McMaster
Website	Official website }}

The Miss America pageant is a long-standing competition which awards scholarships to young women from the 50 states plus the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands. The winner of the national pageant is awarded the title of "Miss America" for one year.

The pageant originated as a beauty contest in 1921, but now prefers to avoid this term since Swimsuit and Evening Wear comprise 35 percent of the overall score used to judge contestants. The pageant began in Atlantic City, New Jersey and was held there each year in September through 2004 (except for the year 2001, when it was held on October 14).

In January 2006, the pageant moved to its new home and time in Las Vegas, Nevada. The pageant presents itself as a "scholarship pageant," and the primary prizes for the winner and her runners-up are scholarships to the institution of her choice. The Miss America Scholarship program, along with its local and state affiliates, is the largest provider of scholarship money to young women in the United States and in the world. In 2006 it made available more than $45 million in cash and scholarship assistance. Since most of the contestants are college graduates already, or on the verge of graduating, most of their prize money is devoted to graduate school or professional school, or to pay off student loans for courses already taken.

The 91st and current Miss America is Laura Kaeppeler, from Wisconsin, who won the title on January 14, 2012.

History

The Miss America competition originated on September 7, 1921, as a two-day beauty contest in Atlantic City, New Jersey. The event that year was still called the Atlantic City Pageant, and the winner of the grand prize, the 3-foot Golden Mermaid trophy, was not called "Miss America" until 1922, when she re-entered the pageant. The pageant was initiated in an attempt to keep tourists in Atlantic City after the Labor Day weekend. The mayor at the time, Edward L. Bader, was a strong advocate of the idea.

In 1935, talent was added to the competition. At the time, non-white women were barred from competing, a restriction that was codified in the pageant's "Rule number seven," which stated that "contestants must be of good health and of the white race." No African American women participated until 1970, although African Americans did appear in musical numbers as far back as 1923, when they were cast as slaves. Until at least 1940, contestants were required to complete a biological questionnaire tracing their ancestry.

In the early years of the pageant, a beauty competition of the women wearing nmed laura lopez bathing suits was the main event. Yolande Betbeze, Miss America 1951, refused to pose for publicity pictures while wearing a swimsuit, citing that she wanted to be recognized as a serious opera singer. Catalina swimwear, one of the Miss America sponsors, withdrew and created the Miss USA/Universe pageants.

Lee Meriwether, the 1955 winner, was the first to receive her title during a televised pageant. Contestants from the same state have won the title of Miss America in consecutive years several times. This has occurred with contestants from Pennsylvania (1935 and 1936), Mississippi (1959 and 1960), and Oklahoma (2006 and 2007). Mary Katherine Campbell, Miss Columbus, Ohio, won in both 1922 and 1923, and was also first runner-up in 1924. The rules were changed to limit an entrant to participating in only one year.

The pageant has been nationally televised since 1954. It peaked in the early 1960s, when it was repeatedly the highest-rated program on American television. It was seen as a symbol of the United States, with Miss America often being referred to as the female equivalent of the President. The pageant stressed conservative values; contestants were not expected to have ambitions beyond being a good wife (there is also a Mrs. America pageant). Since the 1980s seven black women have been crowned Miss America.

With the rise of feminism and the civil rights movement the pageant became a target of protests, and its audience began to fade. In 1968, about 400 women from the ''New York Radical Women'' protested the event on the Atlantic City boardwalk by crowning a live sheep Miss America. They also symbolically trashed a number of feminine products. These included false eyelashes, high-heeled shoes, curlers, hairspray, makeup, girdles, corsets, and bras. Someone suggested burning the contents of a trash can, but a permit could not be obtained. The media seized on an analogy between draft resisters burning their draft cards and the women burning their bras. In fact, there was no bra burning, nor did anyone take off her bra. The brochure distributed at the protest, "No More Miss America", was later canonized in feminist scholarship.

During the 1970s the pageant began admit blacks and encouraged a new type of professional woman. This was symbolized by the 1974 victory of Rebecca Ann King, a law student who publicly supported legalization of abortion in the United States while Miss America.

Still, ratings flagged. In an attempt to create a younger image, Bert Parks, the pageant's famous emcee from 1955 to 1979, was dismissed. Parks had virtually become an American icon, singing the show's signature song, ''There She Is, Miss America'' as the newly-crowned Miss America took her walk down the ramp at the end of each year's pageant. His dismissal prompted public criticism; in protest, Johnny Carson organized a letter-writing campaign to reinstate Parks, but it was unsuccessful. Former TV Tarzan and host of ''Face the Music'', Ron Ely, hosted the pageant that year but was gone the next. Since Parks' departure, many have taken on the role of Miss America TV host. Since Ely, pageant hosts have included Regis Philbin and Kathie Lee Gifford, Gary Collins and Mary Ann Mobley (herself a former Miss America), Meredith Vieira, Boomer Esiason, Wayne Brady, Mario Lopez and James Denton. The 2011 pageant was hosted by Brooke Burke and Chris Harrison.

In 1984, Vanessa Williams became the first African-American woman to be crowned Miss America, but resigned from her duties after nude photos of her surfaced in Penthouse. The job was subsequently filled by first runner-up Suzette Charles who carried out the remaining seven weeks as Miss America 1984. Both women are now included on the canonical list of Miss America laureates; Williams is officially designated Miss America 1984 and Charles is officially designated Miss America 1984b.

Many Miss America winners live after their reigns in relative obscurity, but Vanessa Williams has made an internationally prominent career as a singer selling millions of albums worldwide and achieving critical acclaim as an actress on stage, in film and on television. Others who have had prominent careers in show business include Bess Myerson, Mary Ann Mobley, Lee Meriwether, and Phyllis George. The 1989 winner, Gretchen Carlson, went on to have a career in television journalism. Terry Meeuwsen, 1973 winner, went on to co-host the Christian talk show ''The 700 Club''. Myerson, who was the first (and to date only) Jewish Miss America, was selected in 1945, in the face of official antisemitism, including a request by pageant director Lenora Slaughter that she change her name to one less Jewish-sounding. In the 1990s, the pageant was reformed into The Miss America Organization, a not-for-profit corporation with three divisions: the Miss America Pageant, a scholarship fund, and the Miss America foundation.

In 1991, for the 70th anniversary of the Miss America pagaent, host Julie introduced Bert Parks to sing ''Who I Am". It was the last time Parks performed this song live before his death the following year.

Since the pageant's peak in the early 1960s, its audience has eroded significantly. In 2004, when its audience fell to fewer than 10 million viewers (a huge drop from 33 million viewers just six years before), its broadcaster, ABC, decided to drop the pageant. "Broadcasters show data proving that the talent show and the interviews, the pageant's answers to feminist criticism, were the least popular portions of the pageant, while the swimsuit part still had the power to bring viewers back from the kitchen," said ''New York Times'' reporter Iver Peterson. "So pageant officials - who still require chaperons for contestants when they are in Atlantic City - are thinking about showing a little more."

In 2005, the pageant announced a new television agreement with MTV Networks' Country Music Television. In addition to the move to CMT, there was a switch in the pageant's schedule from September to January 21, 2006, and a move away from Atlantic City and Boardwalk Hall after 85 years to the Las Vegas Strip and the Theatre for the Performing Arts at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino. The show was hosted by James Denton, a star of the television show ''Desperate Housewives''. The pageant remained in Las Vegas for 2007 and was again broadcast on CMT. In March 2007, CMT announced that it would not exercise options for the remainder of its contract through 2011. Discovery Networks then picked up the pageant a few months after to air in January on TLC, along with an associated show, ''Countdown to the Crown'' which aired on Friday nights leading up to the actual 2009 pageant. On January 30, 2010, the pageant was again staged at Las Vegas's Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino. The previous day, TLC aired a one hour preview show at 10:00pm entitled ''Miss America: Behind the Curtain'', which featured some of the contestants and scenes from the preliminary competition. This show was hosted by Clinton Kelly and former Miss America Susan Powell and was rebroadcast at 7:00pm, one hour before the live (EST) pageant coverage on January 30. After seven years, ABC resumed broadcasting the pageant on January 15, 2011.

Due to the altered schedule, Miss America 2005, Alabama's Deidre Downs, reigned for 16 months instead of the usual 12. She was only the second longest-reigning Miss America: in the early days of the pageant, Mary Katherine Campbell from Ohio won the pageant twice, in 1922 and again in 1923. Campbell was also first-runner-up in the 1924 pageant, and when the judge's scores revealed that she had almost won the crown a third time, the pageant created a new rule that a contestant may only win the title of Miss America once (but still allowed a contestant to compete more than once.) Later, the rule was changed so that a contestant may only compete in the Miss America pageant once, whether or not she wins the title.

In the last 51 years of Miss America (through 2008), 27 winners have been blonde, 12 were brown-haired, 9 had black-hair, and 4 were redheads. The average number of steps that a contestant takes during a pageant day is 8939, according to organizers. Several Miss Americas travel in excess of 20,000 miles a month making personal appearances. Many have earned over $100,000 in personal appearance fees during their reign.

Judging

The following portions of the competition are what the contestants are judged on: #Personal Interview In the Personal Interview portion of the competition each contestant converses with the judges on a variety of topics, from frivolous trivia to serious political and social issues. The contestant is awarded points for being well spoken, polite, articulate, and confident. This competition is less known by the general public than other aspects of the pageant, since unlike the other three, it does not take place on a theater stage, nor is it usually televised. The Personal Interview counts for 25% of the contestant's overall score. #Talent In the Talent portion of the competition the contestant performs on stage before the judges and an audience. The most common talents are singing or dancing, but a variety of other talents may be exhibited at the contestant's choosing; some have demonstrated juggling, playing musical instruments, ventriloquism, quick-draw painting. The Talent portion of the competition counts for 35% of the contestant's overall score. #Lifestyle & Fitness in Swimsuit In the Swimsuit portion of the competition contestants walk on the stage in swimsuits and high-heeled shoes. The Miss America pageant regulates certain minimum standards of modesty the swimwear must comply with. Judging for this portion of the competition focuses on overall physical fitness, poise and posture. Before 1997, the contestants were required to wear identical, somewhat dated, one-piece suits. In 1996 the pageant held a phone-in poll asking the public to weigh in on whether or not the Swimsuit competition should be continued. 87% of callers voted to retain the swimsuit portion. In 1997 the organization decided to allow contestants to choose their own more revealing two-piece suits, bikinis, or traditional one-piece suits. The Swimsuit competition counts for 15% of the contestant's overall score. #Evening Wear In the Evening Wear portion of the competition, the contestants are judged on poise and bearing as they walk across the stage. The Evening Wear portion of the competition counts for 20% of the contestant's overall score. #Onstage Question During the Evening Wear competition the contestants are asked a random question from a pre-determined list that they must then answer onstage with no preparation. Questions are topical and usually involve current events. The questions require the contestant to have knowledge of the event and provide an opinion. The Onstage Question counts for 5% of the contestant's total score

Short-lived section: A casual wear section was added to the Miss America competition in 2003, and was filtering down to state and local competitions; however, the "casual wear" section was canceled in 2006 and is no longer in use at any level of the Miss America Program.

Winners

Year	Miss America	State Represented
	Laura Kaeppeler	Wisconsin
	Teresa Scanlan	Nebraska
	Caressa Cameron	Virginia
	Katie Stam	Indiana
	Kirsten Haglund
	Lauren Nelson
	Jennifer Berry
	Deidre Downs
	Ericka Dunlap
	Erika Harold
	Katie Harman
	Angela Perez Baraquio
	Heather French

Hosts

Bob Russell: 1940–1946, 1948–1950, 1954

Bert Parks: 1955–1979

Bess Myerson: 1964–1967

Phyllis George: 1975–1978

Mary Ann Mobley: 1979

Ron Ely and Dorothy Benham: 1980–1981

Gary Collins: 1982–1991

Mary Ann Mobley: 1985–1988

Phyllis George: 1989–1991

Regis Philbin: 1992–1996

Kathie Lee Gifford: 1992–1995

Eva LaRue and John Callahan: 1997

Boomer Esiason and Meredith Vieira: 1998

Donny and Marie Osmond: 1999–2000

Angela Pillas: 2000

Tony Danza: 2001

Wayne Brady: 2002

Tom Bergeron: 2003–2004

Chris Harrison: 2005, 2011, 2012

Brooke Burke Charvet: 2011, 2012

James Denton: 2006

Mario Lopez 2007, 2009–2010

Mark Steines: 2008

Television broadcasters

ABC: 1954–1956

CBS: 1957–1965

NBC: 1966–1996

ABC: 1997–2005

CMT: 2006–2007

TLC: 2008–2010 ABC: 2011–2013

Homages and parodies

Sesame Street parodied the Miss America pageant as the "Letter Of The Day" pageant hosted by Guy Smiley; the five finalists were the vowels and the pageant winner was the letter E.

In the Seinfeld episode The Chaperone, Jerry dates one of the finalists albeit with his neighbor chaperoning.

See also

List of Miss America winners by state

Miss America award winners

Miss America's Outstanding Teen

National Sweetheart - although not officially connected with the Miss America pageant, runners-up from Miss America's state pageants have been invited to the National Sweetheart pageant in Hoopeston, Illinois since the 1940s.

''Miss Congeniality'' (2000), movie with a parody of the pageant as the background ("Miss United States")

References

External links

Miss America 2011

Miss America official site

Photo Essay: America's Pageant A look back at more than 80 years of the Miss America competition on Time.com (a division of Time Magazine)

Pageant Almanac: Miss America

1968-69 No More Miss America protests

Audio Podcast special from Miss America 2006 - Episode #6, Episode #7, Episode #8: all include recordings of press conferences from that week

Category:1921 establishments in the United States Category:Lists of American people * Category:Scholarships in the United States America Category:Atlantic City, New Jersey

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